9) _______________ to make certain to happen.

10) _______________ to take its origin or rise; begin; start; arise.

6. Fill in the gaps with the words given in box. For some points the first letters are given. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1) I e____________ that text directly out of our new library system.

2) The point is this – we cannot a_____________ ideas from the historical epoch in which they appeared.

3) The d__________ was found with multiple head injuries on a footpath.

4) Dog owners must by law e___________ their pet wears a collar and tag with their name and address on it.

5) The word magazine d____________s from an Arabic word meaning a storehouse, a place where goods are laid up.

6) The exotic creature, which ______________ from central and South America, is probably an escaped pet.

7) Interviews were ______________ by the researcher who carried out the interview.

8) He is diplomatic and cautious in his ____________ to sticky situations.

9) From the moon, Earth a____________s as a bright blue-and-white object in the black sky.

10) She spends time on e___________ing her image with fitness routines and new styles.

7. Make the summary of the text.

Revision I.

Check yourself. Remember the following words and phrases:

Read the text and do the tasks after it.

Documents that have been preserved are originals, drafts, or copies. Originals are formal documents drawn up on the order of the sender or donor, and they were designated to serve the recipient or beneficiary as evidence of the transaction recorded. Handwritten copies of documents, made either before or after the deed was actually executed (sealed), are not classified as originals. If made before an “original,” they were rough drafts of it; if made afterward, they were copies.

The particularly Anglo-Saxon method of chirography gave the possibility of producing several “originals.” By this process two or more specimens of a document were written on the same page of the vellum sheet, and the free space between the texts was filled in with the word chyrographum (“handwriting”) or other words and symbols. Then the sheet was cut irregularly right through these words or symbols. The originals thus separated could later be reassembled. An exact fit was complete proof of authenticity.

But to provide documents having the force of “originals,” copies of the original were usually made and formally certified, by public notaries, or by high ecclesiastical or secular dignitaries. Copies certified in this way were accorded the same legal value as the originals. In practice, lack of critical judgment on the part of the certifiers often led to the certification of forged records. In documents known as transumpts, which recited earlier documents or charters as part of their text, it often happened that the earlier document was forged, but, being included in the new, it received validation.

The original documents and copies considered above were issued at the request of the recipient or beneficiary or of his legal heir. It also happened quite often that the sender or donor wished for various reasons to retain a record of the documents issued by him. The chanceries (record offices) of secular rulers or great ecclesiastics therefore kept copies of outgoing documents in registers, and often of incoming documents, too. The popes were among the first to adopt the old Roman practice of keeping registers; although nearly all the earlier ones have been lost, an almost uninterrupted series of papal registers is extant from the pontificate of Innocent III onward.