2) What`s the difference between evidentiary and dispositive documents?
3) What documents replaced private documents?
4) When and why did private document lose their functions?
5) What was the classification of papal and royal documents?
6) What is the difference between papal and royal documents?
2. Find all the types of documents mentioned in the text and give definitions to them in your own words.
Text 3. Materials used for the early documents
Read the text and do the tasks after it.
Documents were written on a variety of material. In antiquity there were documents of stone, metal, wax, papyrus, and, occasionally, of parchment, but only papyrus and parchment (and, very occasionally, wax) were used during the Middle Ages. From the 12th to the 13th centuries, paper was also available.
Papyrus, made from the stem of the papyrus plant, was produced mainly in Egypt. The Merovingian kings wrote their documents on papyrus until the second half of the 7th century, and the popes did so until far into the 11th century. North of the Alps papyrus had finally disappeared by the 8th century, when it was replaced by parchment.
Parchment was made from animal hides and was thus easier to obtain. In southern Europe it was made mainly from sheep and goat hides; the insides of the skin were thoroughly smoothed and calcined, while the hairy sides were left rougher. In central and northern Europe, parchment was usually made from calves’ skins, and both sides of the hides were thoroughly smoothed and calcined.
Paper came originally from China. During the 8th century AD, it spread to the Arab world and from thence to Byzantium, where it was manufactured from linen and was used from the 11th to the 13th centuries for imperial documents. After that time ordinary paper was used in the Byzantine Empire. In the West the use of paper, most common at first in southern Italy and Spain, had begun to spread by the beginning of the 12th century. Germany and southern France began to import paper from Spain and Italy in the 13th century, and soon afterward it had reached England by way of Bordeaux. But paper did not altogether replace parchment, which long remained in use, especially for solemn documents.
(Abridged from the original texts provided by Britannica Encyclopedia)
Notes:
Middle Ages – средние века
The Merovingian kings [ˏmerǝʋˋvindʒiǝn] – франкская династия королей Меровинги
the Alps – Альпы
the Byzantine Empire – Византийская империя
Bordeaux – г. Бордо
1. Answer the following questions:
1) What were documents made of in the past? What materials were used for writing?
2) Which of them were used during the Middle Ages?
3) Who was the main producer of papyrus?
4) Why did North of the Alps papyrus disappear?
5) What was parchment made from?
6) Where did paper appear for the first time?
7) What was paper made from?
8) What countries in the West Europe used paper?
2. Make sentences using the words from A and endings from B:
3. Find in the text the English equivalents to the following words:
доступный / производить (3 слова) / шкура (2 слова) / папа римский / стебель / разглаживать, выравнивать / прожигать, прокаливать, кальцинировать / торжественный / полотно, лен / оставаться
4. Find in the text synonyms to the following words:
vanish (v) _________________________________________
accidentally (adv) ___________________________________
perfectly, completely (adv) ____________________________
substitute (v) ______________________________________
serious, ceremonial (adj) _____________________________