Binary number is a number written using binary notation which only uses zeros and ones. Example: Decimal number 7 in binary notation is: 111166.

Binary tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most two children, which are referred to as the left child and the right child. A recursive definition using just set theory notions is that a (non-empty) binary tree is a tuple (L, S, R), where L and R are binary trees or the empty set and S is a singleton set. Some authors allow the binary tree to be the empty set as well167.

Binning is the process of combining charge from neighboring pixels in a CCD during readout. This process is performed prior to digitization in the CCD chip using dedicated serial and parallel register control. The two main benefits of binning are improved signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and the ability to increase frame rates, albeit at the cost of reduced spatial resolution.

Bioconservatism (a portmanteau of biology and conservatism) is a stance of hesitancy and skepticism regarding radical technological advances, especially those that seek to modify or enhance the human condition. Bioconservatism is characterized by a belief that technological trends in today’s society risk compromising human dignity, and by opposition to movements and technologies including transhumanism, human genetic modification, «strong» artificial intelligence, and the technological singularity. Many bioconservatives also oppose the use of technologies such as life extension and preimplantation genetic screening168,169.

Biometrics is a people recognition system, one or more physical or behavioral traits170,171.

Black box is a description of some deep learning system. They take an input and provide an output, but the calculations that occur in between are not easy for humans to interpret172,173.

Blackboard system is an artificial intelligence approach based on the blackboard architectural model, where a common knowledge base, the «blackboard», is iteratively updated by a diverse group of specialist knowledge sources, starting with a problem specification and ending with a solution. Each knowledge source updates the blackboard with a partial solution when its internal constraints match the blackboard state. In this way, the specialists work together to solve the problem174.

BLEU (Bilingual Evaluation Understudy) is a text quality evaluation algorithm between 0.0 and 1.0, inclusive, indicating the quality of a translation between two human languages (for example, between English and Russian). A BLEU score of 1.0 indicates a perfect translation; a BLEU score of 0.0 indicates a terrible translation175.

Blockchain is algorithms and protocols for decentralized storage and processing of transactions structured as a sequence of linked blocks without the possibility of their subsequent change176.

Boltzmann machine (also stochastic Hopfield network with hidden units) is a type of stochastic recurrent neural network and Markov random field. Boltzmann machines can be seen as the stochastic, generative counterpart of Hopfield networks177.

Boolean neural network is an artificial neural network approach which only consists of Boolean neurons (and, or, not). Such an approach reduces the use of memory space and computation time. It can be implemented to the programmable circuits such as FPGA (Field-Programmable Gate Array or Integrated circuit).

Boolean satisfiability problem (also propositional satisfiability problem; abbreviated SATISFIABILITY or SAT) is the problem of determining if there exists an interpretation that satisfies a given Boolean formula. In other words, it asks whether the variables of a given Boolean formula can be consistently replaced by the values TRUE or FALSE in such a way that the formula evaluates to TRUE. If this is the case, the formula is called satisfiable. On the other hand, if no such assignment exists, the function expressed by the formula is FALSE for all possible variable assignments and the formula is unsatisfiable